Lesson 7
ja-stems and jo-stems
A large number of strong nouns and adjectives, which in the primitive Germanic language could simply be classified as a-stems and o-stems, evolved in a somewhat different direction, particularly in the nominative and accusative singular because the stem-vowel was preceded by the sound j.
Masculine ja-stem Nouns
These fall into two classes. Class (A) ends in -jis. It includes those in which the part of the noun before the j is a single syllable containing:
- a short vowel followed by only one consonant (e.g. the nith- in nithjis "kinsman"), or
- a long vowel or diphthong followed by no consonant (mostly seen in adjectives, like the niu- in niujis "new").
The class (A) endings are:
Singular:
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Plural:
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Nom.
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-jis
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-jos
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Acc.
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-i
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-jans
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Gen.
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-jis
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-je
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Dat.
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-ja
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-jam
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These are essentially the a-stem endings preceded by j, except for the nominative singular (which is -jis not *-js) and the accusative singular (which is -i not *-j). Note that the nominative and genitive singular forms have become identical. Example: sa nithjis "the kinsman"
Nom.
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sa nithjis
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thai nithjos
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Acc.
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thana nithi
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thans nithjans
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Gen.
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this nithjis
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thize nithje
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Dat.
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thamma nithja
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thaim nithjam
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The Vocative is nithi.
Other -jis nouns:
- sa harjis "the army"
- sa andastathjis "the adversary"
Class (B) nouns end in -eis. This class includes those nouns in which the syllable before the ending is:
- followed by more than one consonant (e.g. haird- in hairdeis "herdsman"), or
- if followed by only one consonant, contains a long vowel or a diphthong (e.g. lek- in lekeis "doctor", sipon- in siponeis "disciple"), or
- if none of the above, contains more than one syllable exclusive of prefixes (e.g. laisar- in laisareis "teacher").
The endings are:
Singular:
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Plural:
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Nom.
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-eis
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-jos
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Acc.
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-i
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-jans
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Gen.
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-eis
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-je
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Dat.
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-ja
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-jam
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The only difference between these endings and those of class (A) is that -eis substitutes for -jis. Example: sa laisareis "the teacher" (cf. German "Lehrer")
Nom.
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sa laisareis
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thai laisarjos
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Acc.
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thana laisari
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thans laisarjans
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Gen.
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this laisareis
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thize laisarje
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Dat.
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thamma laisarja
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thaim laisarjam
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Other -eis nouns:
- sa andeis: the end
- sa asneis: the servant (cf. Old English esne)
- sa bokareis: the scribe (connected to boka "letter")
- sa hwaiteis: the wheat
- sa lekeis: the doctor (cf. "leech")
- sa ragineis: the counselor
- sa siponeis: the disciple
This table sums up the basis for the difference between -jis and -eis nouns: on the left side, vowel is the quantity of the vowel of the last syllable before the -jis or -eis ending, and across the top, consonant is the number of consonants following the vowel:
Consonant:
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zero
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one
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two
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polysyllabic
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Vowel:
Short
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-- |
nithjis
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hairdeis
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laisareis
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Long/Diphthong
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niujis
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lekeis
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-- |
siponeis
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Neuter ja-stem Nouns
The endings are:
Singular:
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Plural:
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Nom.
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-i
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-ja
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Acc.
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-i
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-ja
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Gen.
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-jis
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-je
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Dat.
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-ja
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-jam
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These are the same as the neuter a-stem endings preceded by j, except that in the nominative and accusative singular we have -i instead of *-j.
Example: thata nati "the net"
Nom.
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thata nati
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tho natja
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Acc.
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thata nati
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tho natja
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Gen.
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this natjis
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thize natje
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Dat.
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thamma natja
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thaim natjam
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Note that the English word "net" shows the "umlaut" change of vowel a > e, which often occurs in this group of words.
Other neuter ja- stems:
- thata badi: the bed (umlaut a > e)
- thata fairguni: the mountain (Old English firgen)
- thata hawi: the hay (plural tho hauja)
- thata kuni: the generation, the tribe (cf. "kin"; umlaut u > i)
- thata kunthi: the knowledge (related to kunnan "to know")
- thata reiki: the power
- thata taui: the deed, the work (pl. tho toja)
- thata wadi: the pledge (cf. archaic English "wed", a security)
- thata waldufni: the power (cf. English "wield")
Feminine jo-stems
We've already encountered some of these, e.g. halja "hell", sunja "truth"; all of which had a short vowel followed by one consonant, and were declined exactly like the ordinary o-stems. Other types, with a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel followed by two consonants, or polysyllables, had a slightly different declension with the nominative singular ending in -i, e.g. so haithi "the field" (cf. "heath")
Nom.
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so haithi
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thos haithjos
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Acc.
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tho haithja
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thos haithjos
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Gen.
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thizos haithjos
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thizo haithjo
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Dat.
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thizai haithjai
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thaim haithjom
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In every case other than the nominative singular, the endings are just like the normal o-stems preceded by j.
Where the vowel preceding the j was one of the diphthongs ending in u (au, iu) the u became w before the i of the nominative singular, as in so mawi "the maiden":
Nom.
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so mawi
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thos maujos
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Acc.
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tho mauja
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thos maujos
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Gen.
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thizos maujos
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thizo maujo
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Dat.
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thizai maujai
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thaim maujom
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Words:
- so bandi: the bond, the binding
- so frijondi: the friend (feminine)
- so haithi: the field (cf. "heath")
- so mawi: the maiden (cf. archaic English "may" for "maid"), pl. thos maujos
- so thiudangardi: the kingdom (jurisdiction of the thiudans)
- so thiwi: the maidservant, pl. thos thiujos
- so thusundi: the thousand
- so wasti: the clothing (related to "wear", and more distantly to "vest", "vestment")
ja-stem Adjectives
These adjectives fell into two classes, divided on the same basis as the classes of the masculine ja-stems. Class (A) had the same endings as the normal a-stem adjectives preceded by j, except in the masculine nominative singular which ended in -jis, and the neuter nominative/accusative singular, which ended in -i as well as -jata.
E.g. niujis "new"
Masculine: niujis hlaifs "new bread"
Nom.
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niujis hlaifs
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niujai hlaibos
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Acc.
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niujana hlaif
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niujans hlaibans
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Gen.
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niujis hlaibis
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niujaize hlaibe
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Dat.
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niujamma hlaiba
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niujaim hlaibam
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Neuter: niwi (niujata) razn "new house"
Nom.
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niwi/niujata razn
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niuja razna
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Acc.
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niwi/niujata razn
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niuja razna
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Gen.
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niujis raznis
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niujaize razne
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Dat.
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niujamma razna
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niujaim raznam
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Feminine: niuja thiuda "new people"
Nom.
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niuja thiuda
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niujos thiudos
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Acc.
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niuja thiuda
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niujos thiudos
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Gen.
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niujaizos thiudos
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niujaizo thiudo
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Dat.
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niujai thiudai
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niujaim thiudom
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Words:
- aljis, ali, alja: other
- freis, frei, frija: free (freis for *frijis; frei for *friji; but frija, frijata, etc.)
- midjis, midi, midja: middle
- niujis, niwi, niuja: new
- sunjis, suni, sunja: true
- unsibjis, unsibi, unsibja: lawless
Class (B) substituted -eis for -jis in the masculine and neuter, and -i for -ja in the feminine nominative singular.
Masculine: altheis manna "old man"
Nom.
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altheis manna
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althjai mannans
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Acc.
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althjana mannan
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althjans mannans
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Gen.
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altheis mans
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althjaize manne
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Dat.
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althjamma mann
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althjaim mannam
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Neuter: althi (althjata) eisarn "old iron"
Nom.
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althi/althjata eisarn
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althja eisarna
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Acc.
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althi/althjata eisarn
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althja eisarna
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Gen.
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altheis eisarnis
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althjaize eisarne
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Dat.
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althjamma eisarna
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althjaim eisarnam
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Feminine: althi qino "old woman"
Nom.
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althi qino
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althjos qinons
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Acc.
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althja qinon
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althjos qinons
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Gen.
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althjaizos qinons
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althjaizo qinono
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Dat.
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althjai qinon
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althjaim qinom
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Words:
- airzeis, airzi, airzi: astray
- altheis, althi, althi: old
- fairneis, fairni, fairni: old
- wotheis, wothi, wothi: sweet
Past Participles
The past participle is an adjective derived from the verb which indicates a present state resulting from a past action. In the strong verbs it ends in -ans (masculine), -an or -anata (neuter), -ana (feminine) when declined as a strong adjective; it can also be declined as a weak adjective (-ana, -ano, -ano). It corresponds to the verb forms ending in -en in English.
The past participle is the fourth principal part of the strong verb, and like the other parts shows internal vowel changes. However it only has a distinct stem of its own in Class IV; in Classes I, II, and III it has the same stem as the preterite plural; in Classes V, VI, and VII it has the same stem as the present. In Class I (verbs like beitan) the past participle contains -i- (ai before r, h, hw).
beitan "to bite"
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bitans "bitten"
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dreiban "to drive"
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dribans "driven"
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In Class II (verbs like driusan) the past participle contains -u- (au before r, h, hw):
biugan "to bend"
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bugans "bent"
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driusan "to fall"
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drusans "fallen"
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In Class III (verbs like hilpan) the past participle contains -u- (au before r, h, hw):
bindan "to bind"
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bundans "bound" (archaic English "bounden")
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hilpan "to help"
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hulpans "helped" (archaic English "holpen")
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wairpan "to throw"
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waurpans "thrown"
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In Class IV (verbs like niman) the past participle contains -u- (au before r, h, hw):
bairan "to bear"
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baurans "borne"
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niman "to take"
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numans "taken"
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stilan "to steal"
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stulans "stolen"
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In Class V (verbs like giban) the past participle contains -i- (ai before r, h, hw):
giban "to give"
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gibans "given"
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saihwan "to see"
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saihwans "seen"
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In Class VI (verbs like skaban) the past participle contains -a-:
skaban "to shave"
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skabans "shaven"
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swaran "to swear"
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swarans "sworn"
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In Class VII, the past participle has the same stem as the present, and no augment is added (as there is in the preterite):
haldan "to hold"
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haldans "held"
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tekan "to touch"
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tekans "touched"
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saian "to sow"
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saians "sown"
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Words:
- aftra: again, once more
- atbairan, atbar, atberun, atbaurans: offer
- frathjan (irregular), froth, frothun, frathans: understand
- haitan, haihait, haihaitun, haitans: call, name, command
- thata hlaiw: the grave
- lisan, las, lesun, lisans: gather
- nehwa: nigh, near
- nu: now
- sinteino: always, continually
- slahan: beat, strike
- thata rign: the rain
- thar: there
- und: until, up to (with accusative), for (with dative)
- us: out, out of (with dative)
- usdriban: to drive out
- waila: well (ai pronounced as short e)
- waian, waiwo, waiwoun, waians: blow
Sentences: Exercise Answers
- Thata huzd stulan was fram razna thiudanis.
- Weis sehwum thana hari saei hwarf in land nehwa fairgunjam.
- Sa laisareis siponjam seinaim qath managa waurda thoei eis ni waila frothun.
- In thaim althjam dagam, sa guth rignis, saei “Frauja” was haitans, was inwitans in thizai thiudangardjai thize Gutane. ❨“Frauja”: cf. Old English Frea, Old Norse Freyr❩.
- Tho maujos etun wothi milith thatei in althjamma bagma funthan was.
- So fijathwa andastathjis meinis brinnith in saiwalai is.
- Thai unsibjans mannans usdribanai wesun us thamma landa.
- Weiha unsar qithith sunja waurda, ith weiha ize sinteino liugith.
- Hwa skal wisan atbauran thaim gudjam Thunris? ❨“Thunrs” cf. OE Thunor, ON Thorr❩.
- In haithja ana thamma fairgunja stoth ik, jah sahw thata skip sugqano in marein.
Exercise Answers
- I gave my children to the army; now they are killed.
- Tell me, from what kingdom did your kinsman come?
- The rain fell, and the wind blew, and the wheat was neither gathered nor threshed.
- Where are the new helms and breastplates which were given to us?
- When the grain is sown, do not ❨pl.❩ walk on the fields with your friends ❨f.pl.❩.
- Our king lies in his grave until the end of days.
- Call my maidservants and say, “Where is clothing that was given to the maiden?”
- God gives us a new land; there we ❨will❩ always eat fruit and drink wine.
- Free men and free women should not be beaten.
- The king under the mountain comes again to his own kingdom.
Note: I do not own this material, nor did I write it. As far as I can tell, it is under no copyright.
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